ReCALL

Volume 35, Issue 1-3, 2023

ReCALL（SSCI一区，2022 IF：4.5，排名：7/194）2023年第1-3期共刊发25篇，其中研究性论文22篇，社论3篇。研究性论文涉及计算机辅助语言学习、语料库素养、第二语言写作、虚拟交流、语音识别技术、二语口语学习等方面。欢迎转发扩散！（2023年已更完）

往期推荐：

刊讯｜SSCI 期刊 ReCALL 2022年第1期

刊讯｜SSCI 期刊 ReCALL 2022年第2期

刊讯｜SSCI 期刊 ReCALL 2022年第3期

目录

Issue 1

Editorial

■ Editorial, by Alex Boulton, Pages 1–3.

Research Article

■ Towards a signature pedagogy for technology-enhanced task-based language teaching: Defining its design principles, by Laia Canals, Yishay Mor, Pages 4-18.

■ Teachers’ perceived corpus literacy and their intention to integrate corpora into classroom teaching: A survey study, by Sirkku Lesonen, Rasmus Steinkrauss, Minna Suni, Marjolijn Verspoor, Pages 19-39.

■ Unpacking second language writing teacher knowledge through corpus-based pedagogy training, by Nicole Schmidt, Pages 40-57.

■ Critical digital literacy in virtual exchange for ELT teacher education: An interpretivist methodology, by Zeynep Bilki, Müge Satar, Mehmet Sak, Pages 58-73.

■ Review of research on applications of speech recognition technology to assist language learning, by Rustam Shadiev, Jiawen Liu, Pages 74-88.

■ Assessment of L2 intelligibility: Comparing L1 listeners and automatic speech recognition, by Solène Inceoglu, Wen-Hsin Chen, Hyojung Lim, Pages 89-104.

■ Efficacy of different presentation modes for L2 video comprehension: Full versus partial display of verbal and nonverbal input, by Chen Chi, Hao-Jan Howard Chen, Wen-Ta Tseng, Yeu-Ting Liu, Pages 105-121.

■Communication strategy use of EFL learners in videoconferencing, virtual world and face-to-face environments, by Nazlı Ceren Cirit-Işıklıgil, Randall W. Sadler, Elif Arıca-Akkök, Pages 122-138.

Issue 2

Editorial

■ Replication in CALL, by Cornelia Tschichold, Pages 139-142.

Research Article

■ Polish, Portuguese, and Turkish EFL teachers’ perceptions on the use of OER language processing technologies in MALL: A replication study, by Joanna Kic-Drgas, Gölge Seferoğlu, Ferit Kılıçkaya, Ricardo Pereira, Pages 143-159.

■ Student satisfaction and perceived learning in an online second language learning environment: A replication of Gray and DiLoreto (2016), by Hye Won Shin, Sarah Sok, Pages 160-177.

■ EFL learners dropping out of blended language learning classes: A replication of Stracke (2007), by Elke Stracke, Giang Hong Nguyen, Vinh Nguyen, Pages 178-192.

■ Effects of playing the video game Her Story on multiple dimensions of creativity in EFL writing – An international replication study, by Cristina A. Huertas-Abril, Barbara Muszyńska, Pages 193-210.

■ Assessing the effectiveness of machine translation in the Chinese EFL writing context: A replication of Lee (2020), by Yanxia Yang, Xiangqing Wei, Ping Li, Xuesong Zhai, Pages 211-224.

■Beyond replication: An exact replication study of Łodzikowski (2021), by Dennis Foung, Lucas Kohnke, Pages 225-238.

Issue 3

Editorial

■ ReCALL editorial September 2023 issue, by Ana Gimeno-Sanz, Pages 239-240.

Research Article

■ Untangling the relationship between pre-service teachers’ development of intercultural effectiveness and their experiences in virtual exchange, by Irina Rets, Bart Rienties, Tim Lewis, Pages 241-257.

■ Exploring the use of social virtual reality for virtual exchange, by Alice Gruber, Silvia Canto, Kristi Jauregi-Ondarra, Pages 258-273.

■ Factors affecting incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition and retention in a game-enhanced learning environment, by Sangmin-Michelle Lee, Pages 274-289.

■ Postsecondary L2 writing teachers’ use and perceptions of Grammarly as a complement to their feedback, by Svetlana Koltovskaia, Pages 290-304.

■ Genre effect on Google Translate–assisted L2 writing output quality, by Assim S. Alrajhi, Pages 305-320.

■ Building a pedagogic spellchecker for L2 learners of Spanish, by Miguel Blázquez-Carretero, Pages 321-338.

■ Charting the landscape of data-driven learning using a bibliometric analysis, by Jihua Dong, Yanan Zhao, Louisa Buckingham, Pages 339-355.

■ LMOOC research 2014 to 2021: What have we done and where are we going next? by Yining Zhang, Ruoxi Sun, Pages 356-371.

摘要

Towards a signature pedagogy for technology-enhanced task-based language teaching: Defining its design principles

Laia Canals,  Universitat Oberta de Catalunya

Yishay Mor, Consultant

Abstract This paper reports on ongoing research aimed at characterizing a signature pedagogy (Shulman, 2005) of technology-enhanced task-based language teaching (TETBLT). To achieve this goal, we initially identified 15 pedagogical principles and practices distinctive of TETBLT. This initial set of principles and practices were motivated by second language acquisition theories (Doughty & Long, 2003), methodological approaches in foreign language teaching (Kramsch, 2014), and state-of-the-art publications on computer-assisted language learning (Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). During the first phase of the study, we consulted an initial group of 34 experts in the field, using the Delphi technique to achieve gradual consensus about the set of principles. After analyzing the first set of responses (N = 23) to the principles, which attained a degree of agreement averaging 71% and ranging from 48% to 96%, we refined the principles incorporating the feedback received and sent out a second questionnaire, which allowed us to reach a consensus about a set of eight robust pedagogical principles for TETBLT.

Key words computer-assisted language learning, computer-mediated communication, signature pedagogy, pedagogical principles

Teachers’ perceived corpus literacy and their intention to integrate corpora into classroom teaching: A survey study

Qing Ma, The Education University of Hong Kong

Ming Ming Chiu, The Education University of Hong Kong

Shanru Lin, The Education University of Hong Kong

Norman B. Mendoza, The Education University of Hong Kong

Abstract Given the importance of corpus linguistics in language learning, there have been calls for the integration of corpus training into teacher education programmes. However, the question of what knowledge and skills the training should target remains unclear. Hence, we advance our understanding of measures and outcomes of teacher corpus training by proposing and testing a five-component theoretical framework for measuring teachers’ perceived corpus literacy (CL) and its subskills: understanding, search, analysis, and the advantages and limitations of corpora. Also, we hypothesised that teacher CL is linked to their intention to use corpora in classroom teaching. Specifically, 183 teachers and student teachers received corpus training to develop their CL and then completed a survey to measure their CL and intention to use corpora in teaching in Likert-scale items together with open-ended questions. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that a hierarchical factor structure for CL using the aforementioned five subfactors best fitted the data. Moreover, structural equation modelling indicated that CL is positively linked to the participants’ intention to integrate corpora into classroom teaching. While all five subskills are important for teachers, greater effort should be made to develop their corpus search and analysis skills, which can be viewed as the “bread and butter” of corpus training.

Key words corpus literacy, teacher intention, teacher education, classroom teaching

Unpacking second language writing teacher knowledge through corpus-based pedagogy training

Nicole Schmidt,  University of Arizona, United States

Abstract Corpus-based language teaching is one area of second language (L2) pedagogy in which L2 teachers may benefit from extensive guidance on how to integrate digital tools into pedagogical practices. Direct corpus approaches like data-driven learning (DDL) cultivate learner engagement and language discovery. However, second language writing (SLW) teachers face significant challenges using corpora in the classroom, and these challenges often go unaddressed in language teacher education, particularly for in-service teachers. This paper reports on a case study in which six university SLW teachers participated in an online corpus-based pedagogy workshop. Teachers developed DDL activity plans and wrote in reflective diaries. The analysis of these artifacts shows that the teachers tended to follow one of two paths toward knowledge integration, as either Planners or Seekers, when implementing corpus activities in their classrooms. The teachers also reported increased confidence in applying direct corpus methods to their lessons by the end of the workshops, though they expressed the need for continued, long-term support.

Key words data-driven learning, corpus-based pedagogy, second language writing, TPACK

Critical digital literacy in virtual exchange for ELT teacher education: An interpretivist methodology

Zeynep Bilki, TED University

Müge Satar, Newcastle University

Mehmet Sak, TED University

Abstract Virtual exchange (VE) is an ideal venue for digital literacy skills development (Fuchs, Hauck & Müller-Hartmann, 2012) and for critical digital literacy (CDL) (Hauck, 2019). Yet literacy is a fluid, deictic term, the meaning of which is context dependent, and digital literacies need to be defined and conceptualised within a specific context. Recent CALL literature highlights the interest in CDL from various perspectives, but how CDL is conceptualised by the VE participants themselves is not explored. Participants of this study were 37 trainee English language teachers in the UK and Turkey who joined a 6-week VE. Their ongoing reflections on CDL were captured through reflective e-portfolio entries following each VE task. Thematic analysis revealed four components of CDL in this specific VE: (1) participants’ awareness of digital affordances for self-expression, (2) semiotic and interactional means to build connections, (3) ensuring inclusiveness of all community members, and (4) implications of socio-political contexts of each participant for meaning-making and interaction. We conclude that in future pedagogical implementations of VE, facilitators can foster trainee teachers’ CDL development through more closely guided and informed reflection on the four themes presented in this paper. As such, this study makes a novel contribution to our understanding of CDL in VE settings for ELT teacher education by offering a social semiotic second language acquisition orientation within an interpretivist paradigm.

Key words digital literacy, critical digital literacy, virtual exchange, language teacher education

Review of research on applications of speech recognition technology to assist language learning

Rustam Shadiev, Nanjing Normal University

Jiawen Liu, Nanjing Normal University

Abstract Speech recognition technology (SRT) is now widely used in education because of its potential to aid learning, particularly language learning. Nevertheless, SRT has received only limited attention in earlier review studies. The present research aimed to address this gap in the field. To this end, 26 articles published in SSCI journals between 2014 and 2020 were selected and reviewed with respect to domain and skills, technology and their application, participants and duration, measures, reported results, and advantages and disadvantages of SRT. The results showed that English received much more attention than any other language, and scholars mostly focused on facilitating pronunciation skills. Dragon Naturally Speaking and Google speech recognition were the most popular technologies, and their most frequent application was providing feedback. According to the results, college students were involved in research more than any other group, most studies were carried out for less than one month, and most scholars administered a questionnaire or pre-/posttest to collect the data. Positive results related to gains in proficiency and student perceptions of SRT were identified. The study revealed that improved affective factors and enhanced language skills were advantages, whereas a low accuracy rate and insufficiency (i.e. lack of some useful features to support learning efficiently) of SRT were disadvantages. Based on the results, the study puts forward several implications and suggestions for educators and researchers in the field.

Key words review, speech recognition technology, language learning

Assessment of L2 intelligibility: Comparing L1 listeners and automatic speech recognition

Solène Inceoglu,  Australian National University

Wen-Hsin Chen, National Central University

Hyojung Lim,  Kwangwoon University

Abstract An increasing number of studies are exploring the benefits of automatic speech recognition (ASR)–based dictation programs for second language (L2) pronunciation learning (e.g. Chen, Inceoglu & Lim, 2020; Liakin, Cardoso & Liakina, 2015; McCrocklin, 2019), but how ASR recognizes accented speech and the nature of the feedback it provides to language learners is still largely under-researched. The current study explores whether the intelligibility of L2 speakers differs when assessed by native (L1) listeners versus ASR technology, and reports on the types of intelligibility issues encountered by the two groups. Twelve L1 listeners of English transcribed 48 isolated words targeting the /ɪ-i/ and /æ-ε/ contrasts and 24 short sentences that four Taiwanese intermediate learners of English had produced using Google’s ASR dictation system. Overall, the results revealed lower intelligibility scores for the word task (ASR: 40.81%, L1 listeners: 38.62%) than the sentence task (ASR: 75.52%, L1 listeners: 83.88%), and highlighted strong similarities in the error types – and their proportions – identified by ASR and the L1 listeners. However, despite similar recognition scores, correlations indicated that the ASR recognition of the L2 speakers’ oral productions mirrored the L1 listeners’ judgments of intelligibility in the word and sentence tasks for only one speaker, with significant positive correlations for one additional speaker in each task. This suggests that the extent to which ASR approaches L1 listeners at recognizing accented speech may depend on individual speakers and the type of oral speech.

Key words automatic speech recognition, intelligibility

CALL, pronunciation learning, non-native speech

Efficacy of different presentation modes for L2 video comprehension: Full versus partial display of verbal and nonverbal input

Chen Chi,  National Taiwan Normal University

Hao-Jan Howard Chen,  National Taiwan Normal University

Wen-Ta Tseng,  National Taiwan University of Science and Technology

Yeu-Ting Liu,  National Taiwan Normal University

Abstract Video materials require learners to manage concurrent verbal and pictorial processing. To facilitate second language (L2) learners’ video comprehension, the amount of presented information should thus be compatible with human beings’ finite cognitive capacity. In light of this, the current study explored whether a reduction in multimodal comprehension scaffolding would lead to better L2 comprehension gain when viewing captioned videos and, if so, which type of reduction (verbal vs. nonverbal) is more beneficial. A total of 62 L2 learners of English were randomly assigned to one of the following viewing conditions: (1) full captions + animation, (2) full captions + static key frames, (3) partial captions + animation, and (4) partial captions + static key frames. They then completed a comprehension test and cognitive load questionnaire. The results showed that while viewing the video with reduced nonverbal visual information (static key frames), the participants had well-rounded performance in all aspects of comprehension. However, their local comprehension (extraction of details) was particularly enhanced after viewing a key-framed video with full captions. Notably, this gain in local comprehension was not as manifest after viewing animated video content with full captions. The qualitative data also revealed that although animation may provide a perceptually stimulating viewing experience, its transient feature most likely taxed the participants’ attention, thus impacting their comprehension outcomes. These findings underscore the benefit of a reduction in nonverbal input and the interplay between verbal and nonverbal input. The findings are discussed in relation to the use of verbal and nonverbal input for different pedagogical purposes.

Key words multimedia, video captions, animated video, multimodality, English as a foreign language

Communication strategy use of EFL learners in videoconferencing, virtual world and face-to-face environments

Nazlı Ceren Cirit-Işıklıgil,  İstanbul University-Cerrahpaşa

Randall W. Sadler,  University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Elif Arıca-Akkök,  Ankara University

Abstract This study investigates the communication strategy (CS) use of English as a foreign language (EFL) learners in videoconferencing (VC), virtual world (VW), and face-to-face environments. The study was conducted with 30 senior Turkish undergraduate EFL students. The data were collected via video and audio recordings of three opinion-exchange tasks, a background and post-task questionnaire, and an interview that includes a retrospective think-aloud protocol. The participants worked in groups of five to complete the opinion-exchange tasks in each of the three environments. The findings indicated that the participants made use of a wide range of CSs, and although some of the CSs differed, mostly the same types were employed in all the environments. However, the results revealed that the frequency of CSs showed variance among environments, with the highest number in the VC environment and the lowest in the VW. It was possible to establish a connection between the differences in the frequency and the types of strategy use with the distinctive features of the environments, the proficiency level of the participants, and the type of the tasks that was utilized. Additively, 10 new strategy types were discovered.

Key words communication strategy, computer-mediated communication, virtual world, videoconferencing, English as a foreign language

Polish, Portuguese, and Turkish EFL teachers’ perceptions on the use of OER language processing technologies in MALL: A replication study

Joanna Kic-Drgas, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań

Gölge Seferoğlu, California State University, San Bernardino

Ferit Kılıçkaya, Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy University

Ricardo Pereira, Polytechnic of Leiria, Portugal

Abstract This study replicates the research conducted by Pérez-Paredes, Ordoñana Guillamón and Aguado Jiménez (2018) on language teachers’ perceptions on the use of OER language processing technologies in mobile-assisted language learning. It expands the initial research study by adding Polish, Portuguese, and Turkish educational contexts, surveying 239 English as a foreign language teachers in these three countries. The main findings indicate that there are several differences among the three countries, including institutional support regarding the use of mobile devices and the training provided to the teachers. Based on the data collected in these countries, it was found that mobile devices are mainly used for teaching and learning on online platforms. Smartphones were one of the most used devices in English language teaching, while computer labs at schools seem to have lost their popularity. Regarding the technologies available, the results of the study reveal that the participants are most familiar with online dictionaries, spell checkers, and online collocation dictionaries, and the participants’ qualifications are linked to certain differences in familiarity and use of technologies in the classroom. Variables such as gender, age, and years of experience do not show any difference in the familiarity or frequency of use of those technologies. The main findings of the study point out the importance of institutional support and training regarding the use of mobile devices and open educational resources, which are no longer a choice but a necessity in education.

Key words technology, English language teachers, OER

MALL, replication

Student satisfaction and perceived learning in an online second language learning environment: A replication of Gray and DiLoreto (2016)

Hye Won Shin, Korea University

Sarah Sok, University of California

Abstract The current study is an approximate replication of Gray and DiLoreto’s (2016) study, which proposed a model predicting that course structure, learner interaction and instructor presence would influence students’ perceived learning and satisfaction in online learning, with student engagement acting as a mediator between two of the predictors and the outcome variables. Using mixed methods, the current study investigated whether Gray and DiLoreto’s model would be able to explain the relationships among the same variables in a computer-assisted language learning environment. A mediation analysis was conducted using survey responses from a sample of 215 college-level students, and qualitative analysis was conducted on the survey responses from a subsample of 50 students. Similar to Gray and DiLoreto’s study, positive correlational relationships emerged between the variables. However, the model proposed by Gray and DiLoreto did not fit our data well, leading us to suggest alternative path-analytic models with both student engagement and learner interaction as mediators. These models showed that the role of course organization and instructor presence were pivotal in explaining the variation in students’ perceived learning and satisfaction both directly and indirectly via student engagement and learner interaction. Moreover, qualitative analysis of students’ responses to open-ended questions suggested that from students’ perspectives, course structure was the most salient factor affecting their experiences within online language learning contexts, followed by learner interaction, and then by instructor presence.

Key words online learning, course structure, engagement

interaction, student satisfaction, perceived learning

EFL learners dropping out of blended language learning classes: A replication of Stracke (2007)

Elke Stracke, University of Canberra

Giang Hong Nguyen, Hanoi University

Vinh Nguyen, Hanoi University

Abstract Studies with an explicit focus on dropouts in blended language learning (BLL) are rare and non-existent in the Asian context. This study replicates the early qualitative interview study by Stracke (2007), who explored why foreign language learners drop out of a BLL class. While the 2007 study was carried out in the German higher education context, we conducted this study at a university in Vietnam, where we conducted semi-structured interviews with five students who had left their blended English course after the first semester of study. Our findings indicate that the successful complementarity and integration of the blend components, the crucial role of teacher support and feedback within a learner-centred environment, interactive learning materials, a high level of interaction, and a good relationship between students and teachers are key for students’ perception of a successful blended class and retention. The lack of complementarity between the components of the blend remains a major reason for students’ dissatisfaction that resulted in them leaving the course in both the 2007 study and this study. Our study allows for a deep understanding of the reasons why Vietnamese EFL students leave a BLL course, thus providing some evidence for pedagogical adjustments for the delivery of current BLL classes in Vietnam and similar contexts. Understanding the reasons why students drop out can help improve the effectiveness of these programs and lead to higher retention rates, a reduction of costs (both financial but also emotional), an increase in student satisfaction, and a better student experience.

Key words blended language learning (BLL), dropouts, EFL

higher education, replication study, Vietnam

Effects of playing the video game Her Story on multiple dimensions of creativity in EFL writing – An international replication study

Cristina A. Huertas-Abril, University of Córdoba

Barbara Muszyńska, University of Lower Silesia

Abstract This international replication study demonstrates how playing a video game is related to multiple dimensions of creativity in foreign language writing. In this research project, university students were asked to interact with a commercial murder mystery video game, Her Story, and produce a piece of creative writing, which was a replication with a new data collection of the original study by Lee (2019). The reason for using this digital game was to provide an authentic learning opportunity for students and analyze whether digital game-based learning facilitates creativity in EFL writing. This replication, involving 25 university students from Poland and 25 university students from Spain, is a media transfer study based on the students transforming one media format (video game) into another (writing). The results demonstrate that the use of a video game with an ambiguous storyline prompts discovery (specific curiosity) and could be the determining factor for producing original, quality ideas in writing even when holding a negative view of one’s creativity. The findings also indicate that the choice of genre and a viewpoint in writing may influence the level of elaboration in the texts produced by students.

Key words replication, computer-assisted language learning, digital game-based language learning, creative writing, English as a foreign language

Assessing the effectiveness of machine translation in the Chinese EFL writing context: A replication of Lee (2020)

Yanxia Yang, Nanjing University、 Agricultural University

Xiangqing Wei, Nanjing University

Ping Li, Nanjing Agricultural University

Xuesong Zhai, Zhejiang University

Abstract With the dramatic improvement in quality, machine translation has emerged as a tool widely adopted by language learners. Its use, however, has been a divisive issue in language education. We conducted an approximate replication of Lee (2020) about the impact of machine translation on EFL writing. This study used a mixed-methods approach with automatic text analyzer Coh-Metrix and human ratings, supplemented with questionnaires, interviews, and screen recordings. The findings obtained support most of the original work, suggesting that machine translation can help language learners improve their EFL writing proficiency, specifically in strengthening lexical expressions. Students generally hold positive attitudes towards machine translation, despite some skeptical views regarding the values of machine translation. Most students express a strong wish to learn how to effectively use machine translation. Machine translation literacy instruction is therefore suggested for incorporation into the curriculum for language students.

Key words machine translation, EFL writing, Coh-Metrix, human ratings, replication

Beyond replication: An exact replication study of Łodzikowski (2021)

Dennis Foung, The University of British Columbia

Lucas Kohnke, The Education University of Hong Kong

Abstract Replication studies have become an emerging line of research in recent decades, including in computer-assisted language learning (CALL). Exact replication, which closely follows a study’s protocol, is rare as it is hard to recreate results without establishing a highly controlled environment. However, using data available online, we were able to conduct an exact replication of Łodzikowski’s (2021) study, which reported on the use of an allophonic transcription tool by 55 Polish learners of English. Allophonic features are used by native speakers to produce acoustic variants of the same phoneme. The original study offered learners an allophonic transcription tool, examined how they used it and considered its association with phonological awareness. This study extended the original research by addressing the limitations of its regression and transcription analyses. Our findings allowed us to offer several suggestions on (1) how an allophonic transcription tool can be better designed to help learners, (2) how CALL researchers can acquire more data for more useful research and (3) why more replication studies are needed in CALL.

Key words allophone, computer-assisted language learning, exact replication, pronunciation, English as a second language, quantitative analysis

Untangling the relationship between pre-service teachers’ development of intercultural effectiveness and their experiences in virtual exchange

Irina Rets, The Open University

Bart Rienties, The Open University

Tim Lewis, The Open University

Abstract Several studies have found that virtual exchange (VE) has a positive impact on intercultural effectiveness (IE) development. However, few VE studies have measured and unpacked perceived learning gains from VE in this area using data from multiple VEs and mixed-methods approaches. In this study, we explored the impact of VE on perceived IE development among pre-service teachers in two exchanges. Using k-means cluster analysis of reported gains in IE, we identified three groups of students who reported high-medium-low IE gains. Cluster analysis informed our qualitative analysis of students’ reflections on VE. Having analysed data from 486 diary entries at four successive time measurements, we identified three factors critical to students’ perceived IE development: students’ ability to overcome challenges during VE, level of engagement with their partners, and engagement with cultural difference. These findings shed light on what experiences in VE influence participants’ perceptions of their intercultural learning. The study provides recommendations for the design of online collaborative learning programmes, such as VE, that might help address students’ diverse needs.

Key words telecollaboration, virtual exchange, intercultural effectiveness, pre-service teachers, learning

Exploring the use of social virtual reality for virtual exchange

Alice Gruber, Augsburg University of Applied Sciences

Silvia Canto, Utrecht University

Kristi Jauregi-Ondarra, Utrecht University

Abstract Mentored online intercultural interaction offers foreign language learners the opportunity to develop different competences, including intercultural, linguistic, and digital competence (O’Dowd, 2021). Such virtual exchange (VE) projects typically involve computer-mediated communication via, for example, Zoom. However, the use of high-immersion virtual reality (VR) for synchronous online collaboration in VE projects has received little attention. This study investigated the effect of VR on students’ levels of presence and engagement, on students’ communication and on students’ views on using VR for intercultural encounters compared to traditional videoconferencing tools. Twenty-seven university students from the Netherlands and Germany utilised VR to carry out intercultural learning tasks using English as a lingua franca during a four-week implementation period. Participants responded to pre- and post-intervention questionnaires, completed reflection journals, audio- or video-recorded their VR meetings and participated in interviews. Results showed that the levels of presence and engagement and preferences of social VR compared to videoconferencing for intercultural encounters depended on students individually. A VR immersion experience and comfortability scale was created based on the data which showed mixed experiences. VR influenced participants’ interactions, topics of conversation and communication strategies when they explored their spaces together. The results showed that students’ attitudes towards VR and their subjective experience of VR seem to play an important role in the VE-VR setting. VR provided a safe space for many participants. Positive attitudes towards communicating in the VR environment are highly correlated with positive attitudes towards meeting students from other countries in VR. Implications for language education are provided.

Key words virtual exchange, virtual reality, English as a lingua franca, intercultural learning, oral interaction, situated learning

Factors affecting incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition and retention in a game-enhanced learning environment

Sangmin-Michelle Lee, Kyung Hee University

Abstract In recent years, the number of studies investigating the effectiveness of using digital games for incidental second language (L2) vocabulary learning has been rapidly increasing; however, there is still a lack of research identifying the factors that affect incidental L2 vocabulary learning. Hence, the current study examined vocabulary-related (word level, exposure frequency, salience) and learner-related (language proficiency, interest, viewing captions) variables and investigated factors affecting EFL students’ incidental vocabulary learning in the use of a vernacular (noneducational) murder mystery game (N = 59). The study employed a quantitative research method and descriptive and inferential statistics (repeated measures ANOVA and multiple linear regression). The results showed that playing the game greatly facilitated L2 vocabulary acquisition and retention. Among the vocabulary-related variables, the study found that only salience significantly influenced vocabulary acquisition. Regarding the learner-related variables, the students’ interest and viewing captions were positively related to vocabulary learning, whereas their language proficiency levels were negatively correlated. The study found that the students’ conscious attention, in conjunction with salience of the word, was the main facilitating factor in incidental vocabulary acquisition and retention in the game-enhanced language learning environment. The study suggested pedagogical implications for incidental vocabulary learning through game play based on the results of the study.

Key words L2 vocabulary learning, retention, game-enhanced learning, vocabulary-related variables, learner-related variables

Postsecondary L2 writing teachers’ use and perceptions of Grammarly as a complement to their feedback

Svetlana Koltovskaia, Northeastern State University

Abstract Although it has been suggested that automated writing evaluation (AWE) can liberate teachers’ time to focus more on higher-order concerns as it can take care of lower-order concerns, AWE’s impact on teachers’ feedback practice is underexplored. Additionally, scant literature exists on teachers’ perception of AWE when they use it to complement their feedback. This study explored how Grammarly shaped postsecondary L2 writing teachers’ feedback when it was used to complement teacher feedback as well as teachers’ perceptions of the tool. To understand Grammarly’s impact, teachers’ comments on 10 essays were analyzed. The teachers then had a semi-structured interview aimed at exploring their perceptions of Grammarly. The findings showed that teachers provided feedback both on global and local aspects of writing despite using Grammarly as a complement, and there was no division of labor such as that a teacher takes care of higher-order and Grammarly takes care of lower-order concerns. The findings also revealed factors that impacted teachers’ feedback, including teachers’ use of Grammarly reports, their attitudes toward automated feedback, as well as their beliefs about feedback and course objectives. Overall, of the six teachers, four were positive about Grammarly, while two were skeptical. The study provides implications on how to use Grammarly meaningfully as a complement to teacher feedback.

Key words Grammarly, 2 writing, teachers’ perceptions, automated writing evaluation

Genre effect on Google Translate–assisted L2 writing output quality

Assim S. Alrajhi, Department of English Language and Translation, College of Arabic Language and Social Studies, Qassim University

Abstract This study investigates and compares the quality of Google-translated texts (GTTs) across writing genres (narrative, descriptive, expository, and persuasive) with EFL student–generated texts (SGTs), and explores students’ attitudes toward Google Translate (GT) output. In a mixed-methods design with a computational approach to text analysis, this study utilizes multiple data sources, including 328 written texts, written reflections, four attitude questionnaires, focus group discussion, and individual interviews. Forty-one Arabic-speaking undergraduate students majoring in English language and translation at a Saudi university participated in this study. They engaged in eight computer-mediated writing sessions by responding to tasks using English, then responding to the same tasks using their first language (L1). Subsequently, they utilized GT to translate L1 texts into English and compared SGTs with GTTs. The findings show that GTTs have higher literacy levels and richer content in the persuasive and expository genres, and higher style levels in the narrative and descriptive genres. Moreover, the comparison between SGTs and GTTs reveals that GTTs have higher literacy levels, better style, and richer content in the descriptive, expository, and persuasive genres. Meanwhile, the students hold positive views on the general quality, grammatical accuracy, and provision of lexical alternatives in GTTs across genres. Pedagogical implications are discussed.

Key words L2 writing, machine translation, Google Translate, writing genres, EFL learners

Building a pedagogic spellchecker for L2 learners of Spanish

Miguel Blázquez-Carretero, University of the Philippines Diliman

Abstract In 2016, Lawley proposed an easy-to-build spellchecker specifically designed to help second language (L2) learners in their writing process by facilitating self-correction. The aim was to overcome the disadvantages to L2 learners posed by generic spellcheckers (GSC), such as that embedded in Microsoft Word. Drawbacks include autocorrection, misdiagnoses, and overlooked errors. With the aim of imparting explicit L2 spelling knowledge, this correcting tool does not merely suggest possible alternatives to the detected error but also provides explanations of any relevant spelling patterns. Following Lawley’s (2016) recommendations, the present study developed a prototype computer-based pedagogic spellchecker (PSC) to aid L2 learners in self-correcting their written production in Spanish. First, a corpus was used to identify frequent spelling errors of Spanish as a foreign language (SFL) learners. Handcrafted feedback was then designed to tackle the commonest misspellings. To subsequently evaluate this PSC’s efficacy in error detection and correction, another learner Spanish corpus was used. Sixty compositions were analysed to determine the PSC’s capacity for error recognition and feedback provision in comparison with that of a GSC. Results indicate that the PSC detected over 90% of the misspellings, significantly outperforming the GSC in error detection. Both provided adequate feedback on two out of three detected errors, but the pedagogic nature of the former has the added advantage of facilitating self-learning (Blázquez-Carretero & Woore, 2021). These findings suggest that it is feasible to develop spellcheckers that provide synchronous feedback, allowing SFL learners to confidently self-correct their writing while saving time and effort on the teacher’s part.

Key words written corrective feedback, automated written evaluation, computer-generated feedback, self-correction

spelling, Spanish as a foreign language

Charting the landscape of data-driven learning using a bibliometric analysis

Jihua Dong, Shandong University

Yanan Zhao, Shandong University

Louisa Buckingham, The University of Auckland

Abstract This study employs a bibliometric approach to analyse common research themes, high-impact publications and research venues, identify the most recent transformative research, and map the developmental stages of data-driven learning (DDL) since its genesis. A dataset of 126 articles and 3,297 cited references (1994–2021) retrieved from the Web of Science was analysed using CiteSpace 6.1.R2. The analysis uncovered the principal research themes and high-impact publications, and the most recent transformative research in the DDL field. The following evolutionary stages of DDL were determined based on Shneider’s (2009) scientific model and the timeline generated by CiteSpace, namely, the conceptualising stage (1980s–1998), the maturing stage (1998–2011), and the expansion stage (2011–now), with Stage 4 just emerging. Finally, the analysis discerned potential future research directions, including the implementation of DDL in larger-scale classroom practice and the role of variables in DDL.

Key words data-driven learning, co-citation analysis, structural variation analysis, bibliometric analysis

LMOOC research 2014 to 2021: What have we done and where are we going next?

Yining Zhang, Tsinghua University

Ruoxi Sun, Tsinghua University

Abstract This study reviews 71 high-quality studies of massive open online courses focused on languages (LMOOCs) that were published from the inception of LMOOCs to 2021. The purpose of this study is to gain a deeper understanding of the current state of research and identify fruitful directions for future LMOOC research. First, we reviewed three basic sets of characteristics of these studies: (1) research trends – for example, publication types and years; (2) research contexts – for example, countries in which the studies were conducted, the subjects’ target languages, language-ability levels, skills, and whether the focal courses are for specific purposes; and (3) research design, including data collection, data analysis, and theoretical frameworks. We then utilized a text-mining approach called Latent Dirichlet Allocation that uses machine-learning techniques to identify research-topic commonalities underlying the collected studies. In this way, a total of nine topics were identified. They were: (1) core elements of LMOOCs; (2) interaction and communication in LMOOCs; (3) innovative LMOOC teaching practices; (4) LMOOC standards and quality assurance; (5) LMOOC implementation, participation, and completion; (6) LMOOC teaching plans; (7) LMOOC learning effectiveness and its drivers/obstacles; (8) learners and learning in LMOOCs; and (9) inclusiveness in LMOOCs. These were then diagrammed as a ThemeRiver, which showed the evolutionary trend of the nine identified topics. Specifically, scholarly interest in Topics 5, 7, and 9 increased over time, whereas for Topics 1 and 6, it decreased. Based on our results, we highlighted specific directions for future LMOOC research on each of the identified research topics.

Key words massive open online courses (MOOCs), language MOOCs (LMOOCs), online teaching, online learning, systematic review, topic modeling

期刊简介

ReCALL is the journal of the European Association for Computer Assisted Language Learning (EUROCALL). It seeks to fulfil the stated aims of EUROCALL as a whole, i.e. to encourage the use of technology for the learning and teaching of languages and cultures, and especially the promotion and dissemination of innovative research and practice in areas relating to CALL including, but not limited to: Applied Linguistics, Corpus Linguistics, Digital Pedagogy, Digital Literacies, Computer-Mediated Communication, Learning Analytics, Second Language Acquisition, and Educational Science. The journal publishes research articles that report on empirical studies (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods); provide rigorous meta-analyses or other syntheses or surveys; or contribute to theoretical, epistemological or methodological debates. Typical subjects for submissions include foreign or second language learning and development in technology-enhanced learning environments; theoretical debate and practical applications at developmental stage; evaluative studies of the potential of technological advances in the delivery of language learning materials and enactment of language learning activities; and discussions of policy and strategy at institutional and discipline levels. From 2021 ReCALL is published online only.

ReCALL 是欧洲计算机辅助语言学习协会 (EUROCALL) 的期刊。它力求实现 EUROCALL 的既定目标，即鼓励使用技术进行语言和文化的学习和教学，尤其是促进和传播与 CALL 相关领域的创新研究和实践，包括但不限于：应用语言学、语料库语言学、数字教育学、数字素养、计算机介导的交流、学习分析、第二语言习得和教育科学。该期刊发表关于实证研究（定量、定性或混合方法）的研究文章，提供严格的元分析或其他综合或调查，以及有助于理论、认识论或方法论的辩论。提交论文的典型主题包括外语或第二语言学习和技术增强学习环境中的发展；二语发展阶段的理论争论和实际应用；对语言学习材料的提供和语言学习活动的实施的技术进步潜力的评估研究；机构和学科层面的政策和战略讨论。从 2021 年起，ReCALL 仅在线出版。

官网地址：

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/recall

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